Authors born between
200 BCE and 200 CE
[ Jesus Ben Sirach ] [ Sima Qian ] [ Tiruvalluvar ] [ Lucretius ] [ Vitruvius ] [ Jesus of Nazareth ] [ Wang Ch'ung ] [ Epictetus ]
Click Up For A Summary Of Each Author
Contents
Introduction
Connections
in Architecture
The
Education of an Architect
On
Budget Overruns
Source
Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (active around 25 BCE) wrote ten books on architecture. Other that what can be deduced from these books, very little is known of his life. He lived at some time
between the death of Julius Caesar and the battle of Actium, probably in the
reign of Augustus. The dedication of his books
indicates that Augustus was the patron of Vitruvius, so that the books
were probably presented in about 25 BCE. From the text one can gather that
Vitruvius was a creative person with wide-ranging interests. He clearly took
pride in architecture as serving the needs of man and as providing an important
expression of human endeavor.
Vitruvius aims to demonstrate the excellence of the science that he possesses. He notes that as in
other arts, an architect must constantly keep in view the intention of the work and the
material used to express that intention. He must also be versed in history, law, moral philosophy and physics. Vitruvius presents architecture as a thoroughly humanistic art, but warns that talent is not enough for success in architecture: favor and ambition play their part; and money, good connections, and eloquence are essential.
The
short extracts here are taken from Books I and II to show the general ideas on
architecture in Roman times without getting into the details of construction
practices. Architecture is one of the fine arts and as such is sensitive to
man and his position in nature.
1 In
the first book, Emperor, I laid before you an explanation of the art, its
requisites, and the learning an architect should possess, and I added the
reasons why he should possess them. I also divided it into different branches
and defined them. Then, because most important and most necessary, I have
explained the proper method of setting out the
walls of a city, and obtaining a healthy site for it, and have exhibited
in diagrams the winds, and quarters whence they blow. I have shown the best
methods of laying out the streets and lanes, and thus completed the first
book. In the second book I have analyzed the nature and qualities of the
materials used in building, and adverted to the purposes to which they are
best adapted..
2 No
matter how an artist may promise to exert his talents, if he have not either
plenty of money, or good connections from his situation in life; or if he be
not gifted with a good address or considerable eloquence, his study and
application will go but little way to persuade persons that he is a competent
artist.
We find a corroboration of this by reference to the ancient Sculptors
and Painters, among whom, those who acquired the greatest fame and applause
are still living in the remembrance of posterity; such, for instance, as
Myron, Polycletus, Phidias, Lysippus, and others who obtained celebrity in
their art. This arose from their being employed by great cities, by kings, or
by wealthy citizens. Now others, who, not less studious of their art, nor less
endued with great genius and skill, did not enjoy equal fame, because employed
by persons of lower rank and of slenderer means, and not from their lack of
skill, seem to have been deserted by fortune; such were Hellas the Athenian,
Chion of Corinth, Myagrus the Phocaean, Pharax the Ephesian, Bedas of
Byzantium, and many more; among the Painters, Aristomenes of Thasos, Polycles
of Adramyttium, Nicomachus and others, who were wanting neither in industry,
study of their art, nor talent. But their poverty, the waywardness of
fortune, or their ill success in competition with others, prevented their
advancement.
Nor can we wonder that from the ignorance of the public in respect of
art many skilful artists remain in obscurity; but it is scandalous that
friendship and connections should lead men, for their sake, to give partial
and untrue opinions. If,
as Socrates would have had it, every one's feelings, opinions, and information
in science could be open to view, neither favor nor ambition would prevail,
but those, who by study and great learning acquire the greatest knowledge,
would be eagerly sought after.
Matters are not however in this state as they ought to be, the ignorant rather than the learned being successful, and as it is never worth
while to dispute with an ignorant man, I propose to show in these precepts the
excellence of the science I profess.
3
Architecture arises from other sciences and arts, adorned with copious
and diverse learning, To pass judgment on architectural works requires a firm
grasp on this learning when other arts are made use of. To achieve competence
in architecture itself requires competence in both practice and theory.
Practice involves continual concentration on the execution of each task,
particularly when working with the hands, for it is in preparing a material
that one best gains an appreciation of its properties. Theory comes from
reasoning that demonstrates and explains how to develop designs and prepare
materials. An architect who merely has practical experience is unable to
justify the design he adopts; one who is merely a theoretician fails by
grasping the shadow rather than the substance. Only an architect well-grounded
in both theory and practice is properly equipped: able not only to prove the
propriety of a design but also able to implement it effectively. For as in
other arts, architecture must constantly keep in view the intention and the
material used to express that intention. Successful implementation is founded
on the imperative that the materials chosen can be worked to completely fulfill
their purpose. This is impossible without mastery of both theory and practice.
Consequently, a person not familiar with both of these branches of the art has
no pretension to the title of architect.
4
An architect should be creative and apt in the acquisition of
knowledge. Deficient in either of these qualities, he cannot be a perfect
master. An architect should be a good writer, a skillful draftsman, versed in
geometry and optics, expert at figures, acquainted with history, informed on
the principles of natural and moral philosophy, somewhat of a musician, not
ignorant of the law and of physics, nor of the motions, laws, and relations to
each other, of the heavenly bodies.
By means of the first named accomplishment, an architect commits
observation and experience to writing, in order to assist memory. Drawing is
employed in representing the forms of designs. Geometry affords much aid to
the architect: to it is owed the use of the right line and circle, the level
and the square, whereby the delineations of buildings on plane surfaces are
greatly facilitated. The science of optics enables an architect to introduce
with judgment the requisite quantity of light, according to the aspect of a
building. Arithmetic provides cost estimates, and aids in the measurement of
works; assisted by the laws of geometry, it determines those abstruse
questions wherein the different proportions of some parts to others are
involved.
5
Unless acquainted with history, an architect will be unable to justify
the use of many ornaments that may be introduced. For instance, should any
one question the origin of those draped matronal figures crowned with a mutule
and cornice, called Caryatides, the explanation lies in the following history. Carya, a city of Peloponnese, joined the Persians in their war against the
Greeks. These in return for the treachery, after having freed themselves by a
most glorious victory from the intended Persian yoke, unanimously resolved to
levy war against the Caryans. Carya was, in consequence, taken and destroyed,
its male population extinguished, and its matrons carried into slavery. That
these circumstances might be better remembered, and the nature of the
triumph perpetuated, the victors portrayed these women as draped, and
apparently suffering under the burden with which they were loaded, to expiate
the crime of their native city. Thus, in their edifices, did the ancient
architects, by the use of these statues, hand down to posterity a memorial
of the crime of the Caryans.
6
Again, a small number of Spartans, under the command of Pausanias, the
son of Cleombrotus, overthrew the prodigious army of the Persians at the
battle of Platea. After a triumphal exhibition of the spoils and booty, the
proceeds of the valor and devotion of the victors were
applied by the government to the erection of the Persian portico. As an
appropriate monument to the victory, and a trophy for the admiration of
posterity, its roof was supported by statues of the barbarians in their
magnificent costume, signifying a merited contempt for their haughty projects,
intimidating other enemies, and acting as a stimulus to their fellow
Lacedaimonians to be always in readiness for the defense of the nation. This
is the origin of the Persian order for the support of an entablature; an
invention which has enriched many a design with the singular variety it
exhibits. Many other matters of history have a connection with architecture,
and prove the necessity of architects being well versed in it.
7
Moral philosophy will teach the architect to be above meanness, avoid
arrogance, and be just, compliant and faithful to a client. And, what is of
the highest importance, it will prevent avarice, for an architect should not
be occupied with the thoughts of acquiring riches, nor with the desire of
grasping every thing in the shape of gain. Rather, an architect should
dignified, with gravity of manner and goodness of character. In these matters
we recognize the importance of moral philosophy; for such are her precepts.
8
Music assists an architect in the use of harmonic and mathematical
proportion. It is, moreover, absolutely necessary in adjusting the force of
the balistae, catapultae, and scorpions, in whose frames are holes for the
passage of the homotona, which are strained by gut-ropes attached to
windlasses worked by hand-spikes. Unless these ropes are equally
extended, which only a sensitive ear can discover by their sound when struck,
the bent arms of the engine do not give an equal impetus when disengaged,
and the strings, therefore, not being in equal states of tension, prevent the
accurate flight of the weapon.
Also the acoustic vessels placed in certain recesses under the seats of
theaters are fixed and arranged with a due regard to the laws of music, their
tones being fourths, fifths, and octaves; so that when the voice of the actor
is in unison with the pitch of these instruments, its power is increased and
mellowed by impinging thereon. An architect would, moreover, be at a loss in
constructing hydraulic and other engines, if ignorant of music.
9
That branch of philosophy which the Greeks call the doctrine of
physics, is necessary to an architect in the solution of various problems; as
for instance, in the conduct of water, whose natural force, in its meandering
and expansion over flat countries, is often such as to require restraints,
which none know how to apply but those who are acquainted with the laws of
nature. Nor, indeed, unless grounded in the first principles of physics, can
an architect study with profit the works of Ctesibius, Archimedes, and many
other authors who have written on the subject.
Skill in physics enables an architect to ascertain the healthiness of
different tracts of country, and to determine the variation of climates. These
matters are of the highest importance, as no building will be healthy without
attention to such points.
10
The law should be an object of an architect’s study, especially those
parts of it which relate to party walls, to the free course and
discharge of the eaves' waters, the regulations of cesspools and sewage, and
those relating to window lights. The laws of sewage require particular
attention, to prevent a client being involved in law suits when the
building is finished. Also, contracts for the execution of the works should
be drawn with care and precision, because neither
party will be able to take advantage of the other when legal flaws are absent
11
Astronomy instructs an architect in the points of the heavens, the laws
of the celestial bodies, the equinoxes, solstices, and courses of the stars;
all of which should be well understood in the construction and proportions of
clocks.
12
Since, therefore, this art is founded upon and adorned with so many
different sciences, I am of opinion that those who have not from their
early youth gradually climbed to its summit cannot, without presumption,
call themselves masters of it. Perhaps, to the uninformed, it may appear
unaccountable that an architect should be able to retain in memory such a
variety of learning; but the close alliance with each other of the
different branches of science impinging on architecture will resolve the
difficulty. For as a body is composed of various concordant members, so does
the whole circle of learning consist in one harmonious system. For this reason those who from an early age are initiated in the different branches of
learning have a facility in acquiring some knowledge of all, because of their common
connection with each other.
13
In this regard one of the ancients, Pythius, architect of the noble
temple of Minerva at Priene, says in his commentaries that an architect should
have the perfect knowledge of each art and science that is not even
acquired by the professors of any one science in particular, who have had every
opportunity of improving themselves in it. Such perfection, however, cannot
be necessary, for an architect cannot be expected to be the equal Aristarchus
as a grammarian, yet should not be ignorant of grammar. In music, an
architect evidently need not equal Aristoxenus, yet should know something of
its harmonies. An architect need not excel, as Apelles, in painting, nor as
Myron or Polycletus, in sculpture, yet should attain some proficiency in these
arts. In the science of medicine, it is not required that an architect
should equal Hippocrates. Thus also in other sciences it is not important
that pre-eminence in each be gained, but an architect must not be
ignorant of the general principles of each. For in such a variety of matters,
it cannot be supposed that the same person can arrive at excellence in each,
since to be aware of their many refinements and implications, cannot fall
within his power.
14
Those unto whom nature has been so bountiful that they are at once
geometricians, astronomers, musicians, and skilled in many other arts, go
beyond what is required of the architect, and may be properly called
polymaths, in the extended sense of that word. Men so gifted, discriminate
acutely, and are rare. Such, however, was Aristarchus of Samos, Philolaus and
Archytas of Tarentum, Apollonius of Perga, Eratosthenes of Cyrene, Archimedes
and Scopinas of Syracuse, each of whom wrote on all the sciences.
Since few men are thus gifted, an architect who must strive to be
generally well informed in all the arts cannot hope to excel in each.
Therefore, I beseech you, O Caesar, and those who read this my work, to pardon
and overlook grammatical errors; for I write neither as an accomplished
philosopher, an eloquent rhetorician, nor an expert grammarian, but as an
architect. In respect, however, of my art and its principles, I will lay down
rules which may serve as an authority to those who build, as well as a guide to those
who are already somewhat acquainted with the science.
15
In the magnificent and spacious Grecian city of Ephesus an ancient law
was made by the ancestors of the inhabitants. It was hard indeed in its nature, but
nevertheless equitable. When an architect was entrusted with the execution of
a public work, an estimate of the cost was lodged in the hands of a magistrate, and the architect's property was held as security until the work was finished. If, when
finished, the expense did not exceed the estimate, he was complimented with
decrees and honors. When the excess did not amount to more than a fourth
part of the original estimate, it was defrayed by the public, and no
punishment was inflicted. But when more than onefourth of the estimate was
exceeded, he was required to pay the excess out of his own pocket.
Would to God that such a law existed among the Roman people! Not only
in respect of their public, but also of their private buildings. For then the
unskillful could not commit their depredations with impunity, and only those who
were the most skilful in the intricacies of the art would follow the
profession. Proprietors would not be led into an extravagant expenditure so as
to cause ruin; architects themselves, from the dread of punishment, would be
more careful in their calculations, and the proprietor would complete his
building for that sum, or a little more, which he could afford.
Those who can conveniently expend a given sum on any work, with the pleasing
expectation of seeing it completed would cheerfully add one-fourth more. But when they find themselves burdened with the addition of half again, or
even more, of the expense originally contemplated, they lose their spirit and tend to abandon completion, sacrificing what has already been laid out,
Adapted from The
Architecture of Marcus Vitruvius Pollio in Ten Books translated from the
Latin by Joseph Gwilt, London, John Weale, 1860.
Selection and adaptation Copyright © Rex Pay 2000